Ambident nucleophile: Definition, easy examples
Ambident nucleophile is a type of nucleophile which have two attacking sites, and thus has chances of producing a mixture of products. More details of it, along with definition, examples, and regiochemistry have been discussed in this post. Ambident nucleophile We are familiar with the term nucleophile, aren’t we? Actually, the nucleophile is electron-rich species, […]
Non-Equivalent and Equivalent hybridization
Non-equivalent and equivalent hybridization are the types of hybridization processes that differ from each other in some facts, which are discussed in this post. Non-equivalent and equivalent hybridization The three basic s-p hybridizations i.e sp, sp2, and sp3 have the property that in each case, the hybrid atomic orbitals are equivalent. This is true only […]
Auger electron spectroscopy: Principle, instrumentation and application
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) is a technique used to identify the elemental composition and chemical bonding of the atoms in the surface region of the solid samples. It can be combined with ion-beam sputtering to remove the material from the surface and to continue to monitor the composition and chemistry of the remaining surface. It […]
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy: Principle, instrumentation, application
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is one of the most widely used surface-sensitive electron emission spectroscopic techniques. Its development is based on the photoelectric effect, which may detect the element existing within a material or covering its surface. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy principle The characteristic binding energies of core electrons in atoms keep them in their orbitals. The […]
Benzil benzilic acid rearrangement: Easy mechanism
Benzil benzilic acid rearrangement was first of all reported by Liebig in 1838. Benzil benzilic acid rearrangement is the conversion of benzil (α-diketones) into the salt of α-hydroxyl acid in the presence of an alkali base. This reaction is also known as benzilic acid rearrangement. Benzilic acid rearrangement The reaction of 1,2 diketones with alkali hydroxide […]
Joule Thomson effect: Definition, expression
Joule Thomson effect is an experimentally verified statement given by Joule and Thomson and later by Lord Kelvin, they observed the cooling effect when compressed gas is forced to pass through a porous plug into a low-pressure region. The Joule-Thomson Effect or Joule-Kelvin Effect is the phenomenon of dropping temperature when gas is forced to […]
state and explain Hess’s law of constant heat summation
If the reaction is carried out at a constant volume, the heat change in the chemical reaction is equal to the difference in internal energy(∆E). Similarly, if the reaction is studied at constant pressure, the heat change in the chemical reaction is equal to the difference in enthalpy changes(∆H). Because ∆E and ∆H are functions […]
Hittorf method for determination of transport number
Hittorf method for determination of transport number is one of the commonly used methods, which is based on Hittorf’s rule. Actually, hittorf’s rule state that loss of concentration around an electrode is proportional to the speed of the ions moving away from that electrode. The transport number of an ion is determined experimentally from the […]
State Le chatelier’s principle with applications
Le-chaterlier’s principle is a generalization made by a French chemist Le-chatelier to explain the qualitative effect of changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure on the state of the system in equilibrium. State Le chatelier’s principle According to Le-chatelier’s principle, If a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change of concentration, pressure, or temperature, the […]
Chemical Equilibrium: Definition, 2 Types
Chemical equilibrium, its definition, fascinating characteristics, examples of some reactions in equilibria, and two main types of chemical equilibria with examples have been discussed here. Let’s explore. Chemical equilibrium Most chemical reaction involves the complete conversion of reactant to product and is spontaneous under suitable sets of conditions. But, there are many reactions that don’t […]
Kinetic molecular theory of gases: Postulates
Kinetic molecular theory of gases is an theoretical model which was put forwarded by Bernoulli in 1738 and later it was further developed by Kronig, Clausius, Maxwell, Boltzmann and other scientists. Other gas laws such as Boyle’s law, Charle’s law, Avogardo’s hypothesis, Graham’s law of diffusion etc were totally based on experimental observations and there […]
Hittorf Number or Transference Number
Hittorf number, hittorf’s transference number, transference number, or transport number, all terms represent the same meaning. As we know, during electrolysis current is carried by anions and cations. This number gives an idea about how much of the total current is being carried by a particular ion, that be my cation or anion. Hittorf Number […]